The second letter, sent by Hernán Cortés to Emperor Charles V on October 30, 1520, details several pivotal moments during the early stages of the Spanish conquest of Mexico:
- Sinking of the Ships: Cortés deliberately ran his ships aground on the coast. This action removed the hope of retreat for his men, including those loyal to Diego Velázquez who wished to flee, forcing the company to remain and commit to the inland journey.
- The Tlaxcalan Conflict and Alliance: Cortés engaged in several fierce battles with the Tlaxcalans, including a massive confrontation involving an estimated 149,000 warriors. After proving their military strength, the Tlaxcalans—longstanding enemies of Montezuma—agreed to become Spanish allies and vassals of the Crown.
- The Massacre of Cholula: Upon being warned by the Tlaxcalans of a potential trap in Cholula orchestrated by Montezuma, Cortés launched a preemptive strike. In two hours of fighting, his forces killed more than 3,000 inhabitants.
- Entrance into Tenochtitlan: On November 8, 1519, Cortés and his men entered the capital city of Tenochtitlan. They were received with great ceremony by Montezuma, who provided them with lodging and shared the traditional belief that the Spaniards were descendants of a long-awaited lord.
- Imprisonment of Montezuma: Fearing for Spanish safety and seeking to control the vast territory, Cortés arrested Montezuma six days after entering the city. Montezuma remained in Spanish custody, continuing to govern under Spanish oversight.
- Conflict with Pánfilo de Narváez: Cortés learned that Diego Velázquez had sent an armada led by Pánfilo de Narváez to arrest him. Cortés left a garrison in Tenochtitlan and marched to the coast, where he successfully launched a surprise night attack on Narváez’s forces at Cempoala, taking him prisoner and incorporating the new soldiers into his own army.
- The “Noche Triste” (The Sad Night): Upon returning to Tenochtitlan, Cortés found the city in open revolt. During the heavy fighting, Montezuma died after being struck by a stone thrown by his own people. Facing starvation and overwhelming numbers, the Spanish attempted a secret night retreat across the bridges of the causeway but were discovered. They suffered a catastrophic defeat, losing many men, horses, and the gold they had accumulated.
- Retreat to Tlaxcala: After the retreat and a final desperate victory at the Battle of Otumba, the survivors reached the safety of Tlaxcala. From there, Cortés began planning the reconquest of Tenochtitlan, starting with campaigns in Tepeaca and the construction of thirteen brigantines to attack the capital by water.
Cortés explained that he intentionally disabled his ships to ensure the safety of his expedition and to commit his men fully to the conquest of Mexico.
Justification to His Men
Cortés officially presented the sinking of the ships as a necessary response to the poor condition of the vessels, which he claimed were no longer fit for navigation. Specifically:
- Safety concerns: He stated that the ships were in such a state that they were at risk of being lost at sea.
- Resource allocation: By bringing the ships ashore, he could salvage valuable equipment and utilize the sailors as soldiers for the inland journey.
True Purpose of the Action
While he used the ships’ unseaworthiness as a public excuse, Cortés explicitly reveals in his letter that his primary motivations were strategic and political:
- Preventing desertion: Several of his men, particularly those loyal to Diego Velázquez, were planning to seize a ship and flee back to Cuba to alert Velázquez of Cortés’s progress. Sinking the ships removed their only means of escape.
- Eliminating the option of retreat: Cortés recognized that many of his soldiers were intimidated by the vastness of the territory and the overwhelming number of native people. By destroying the ships, he removed the “hope of leaving the land,” forcing every man to commit to the mission and remain at his side.
- Securing the rear: This action ensured that the garrison he left at Veracruz would not be abandoned by men attempting to sail away, allowing him to march inland with a more secure and unified force.
Before his initial entry into Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519, Cortés describes several major military engagements in his second letter:
- First Conflict with Tlaxcalans: Upon entering the province of Tlaxcala (Tascaltecal), Cortés’s advance guard of horsemen was attacked by about 15 Indians with swords and shields. This quickly escalated into a battle against 4,000 to 5,000 Indians. The Spanish killed 50 to 60 enemies without suffering any losses themselves.
- Battle Against 100,000 Warriors: The following day, the Spanish were surrounded and attacked by more than 100,000 men. Cortés claims that despite being completely encircled, they fought all day and emerged without any losses other than fatigue and hunger, while doing significant damage to the enemy with artillery, crossbows, and horses.
- Spanish Preemptive Strike on Tlaxcalan Towns: Cortés launched a surprise dawn attack on Tlaxcalan settlements, burning five or six small towns and taking about 400 prisoners.
- Battle Against 149,000 Warriors: In a massive confrontation at dawn, more than 149,000 men attacked the Spanish camp. Some enemies even managed to enter the camp and engage in hand-to-hand combat. After four hours of fighting, the Spanish cleared the camp and continued fighting until late in the day.
- Destruction of Tlaxcalan Villages: Cortés conducted another night sortie, burning more than 10 villages, including one with over 3,000 houses, where he faced resistance from the inhabitants.
- Discovery and Punishment of Tlaxcalan Spies: Tlaxcalan leaders sent 50 men to the Spanish camp under the guise of bringing food. Cortés, suspecting they were spies intended to help a night attack, interrogated some of them. After they confessed, he cut off the hands of all 50 men and sent them back to their leader as a message.
- Night Attack on Tlaxcalan Towns: Following the spy incident, Cortés led 100 footmen and his cavalry in a night attack, surprising and doing damage to three more towns. One of these towns was reportedly so large it contained more than 20,000 houses. This action eventually led the Tlaxcalan leaders to seek peace.
- The Massacre of Cholula: While in Cholula, Cortés was warned of a plot by Montezuma’s forces to trap and kill the Spanish. Cortés launched a preemptive strike, trapping the city’s leaders in a hall and then signaled his men to attack. In two hours of fighting, more than 3,000 people were killed. Cortés then spent five more hours fighting through the city, burning towers and strongholds until the inhabitants were driven out.
The second letter, sent by Hernán Cortés to Emperor Charles V on October 30, 1520, is a lengthy account detailing the pivotal events of the Spanish conquest between July 1519 and October 1520. The most significant events described in this letter include:
- Sinking of the Spanish Ships: To prevent desertion by those loyal to Diego Velázquez and to force his men to commit fully to the inland journey, Cortés intentionally ran his ships aground. He officially justified this to his men by claiming the vessels were no longer seaworthy.
- The Tlaxcalan Conflict and Alliance: Cortés engaged in several fierce battles with the Tlaxcalans, including a massive confrontation against an estimated 149,000 warriors. After proving Spanish military strength, the Tlaxcalans—longstanding enemies of Montezuma—agreed to become allies of the Spanish and vassals of the Spanish Crown.
- The Massacre of Cholula: Warned by the Tlaxcalans of a potential trap orchestrated by Montezuma, Cortés launched a preemptive strike in Cholula. In two hours of fighting, his forces killed more than 3,000 inhabitants.
- Initial Entry into Tenochtitlan: On November 8, 1519, Cortés and his men entered the capital city. They were received with great ceremony by Montezuma, who provided them with lodging and shared a traditional belief that the Spaniards were descendants of a long-awaited lord.
- Imprisonment of Montezuma: Fearing for Spanish safety and seeking to control the vast territory, Cortés arrested Montezuma six days after entering the city. Montezuma remained in Spanish custody, continuing to govern under their oversight.
- Conflict with Pánfilo de Narváez: Cortés learned that Diego Velázquez had sent an armada led by Pánfilo de Narváez to arrest him. Cortés left a garrison in Tenochtitlan and marched to the coast, where he successfully launched a surprise night attack on Narváez’s forces, taking him prisoner.
- The “Noche Triste” (The Sad Night): Upon returning to Tenochtitlan, Cortés found the city in open revolt. During the heavy fighting, Montezuma died after being struck by a stone thrown by his own people. On the night of June 30, 1520, the Spanish attempted a secret retreat but were discovered, resulting in a catastrophic defeat with heavy losses of men, horses, and accumulated gold.
- Retreat to Tlaxcala and Planning Reconquest: After a final victory at the Battle of Otumba, the survivors reached the safety of Tlaxcala. From there, Cortés began planning the reconquest of Tenochtitlan, starting with a campaign in Tepeaca and the construction of thirteen brigantines to attack the capital by water.
The following is a summary of the five letters written by Hernán Cortés regarding the conquest of Mexico:
First Letter (July 10, 1519)
- Initial Expeditions: Relates earlier voyages to Yucatán by Francisco Fernández de Córdoba and Juan de Grijalva, noting the discovery of wealthy lands and initial conflicts with native groups.
- Establishment of Veracruz: Describes how Cortés and his men decided to settle the land rather than just trade, leading to the founding of “la rica villa de la Vera Cruz”.
- Legitimacy and Loyalty: The town council (cabildo) justifies appointing Cortés as Captain General and Chief Justice, effectively bypassing the authority of Diego Velázquez.
- Native Customs: Details observations of local life, including religious practices like human sacrifice, which the Spaniards sought to replace with Christianity.
Second Letter (October 30, 1520)
- March Inland and Alliances: Describes the journey toward Tenochtitlan, including fierce battles with the Tlaxcalans, who eventually became key Spanish allies.
- The Cholula Massacre: Recounts a preemptive strike in Cholula after Cortés was warned of a planned native ambush.
- Entry and Occupation: Details the first meeting with Montezuma and the Spanish entry into Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519.
- Montezuma’s Captivity: Explains how Cortés took Montezuma prisoner within his own city to maintain control.
- Conflict with Narváez: Recounts Cortés leaving the city to defeat Pánfilo de Narváez, who was sent by Velázquez to arrest him.
- “La Noche Triste”: Details the native uprising in Tenochtitlan, Montezuma’s death, and the disastrous Spanish retreat where many men and much gold were lost.
Third Letter (May 15, 1522)
- Reorganization: Following the retreat, Cortés reorganizes his forces in Tlaxcala and begins a systematic campaign to subdue surrounding provinces like Tepeaca.
- Building the Fleet: Describes the construction of thirteen brigantines to be used for a naval assault on the island city.
- The Siege of Tenochtitlan: Provides a day-by-day account of the 75-day siege, detailing the naval battles, the destruction of the city’s aqueducts, and the brutal street-by-street fighting.
- Final Surrender: Recounts the capture of the last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtémoc (Guatimucín), on August 13, 1521, marking the end of the Aztec Empire.
Fourth Letter (October 15, 1524)
- Post-Conquest Expansion: Focuses on the reconstruction of Tenochtitlan and the expansion of Spanish control into regions like Pánuco, Michoacán, and the Pacific coast (South Sea).
- Administrative Conflicts: Addresses ongoing tensions with other Spanish officials, including the arrival of Cristóbal de Tapia and the rebellion of Francisco de Garay’s men.
- Search for the Strait: Expresses Cortés’s obsession with finding a sea passage (strait) between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans to ease travel to the Spice Islands.
- Governance and Religion: Discusses the implementation of the encomienda system and requests that the Crown send religious orders (Franciscan and Dominican) rather than a high church hierarchy to convert the natives.
Fifth Letter (September 3, 1526)
- The Hibueras Expedition: Describes a grueling overland trek to Honduras (Las Hibueras) to punish Cristóbal de Olid for his rebellion.
- Execution of Cuauhtémoc: Recounts the discovery of a conspiracy by the captive Aztec lords, leading Cortés to execute Cuauhtémoc during the expedition.
- Hardships of the Journey: Details the extreme physical challenges of the march, including building massive bridges through swamps and losing many horses in the mountains.
- Return to Mexico: Relates Cortés’s return to Tenochtitlan after nearly two years, only to find that his enemies had reported him dead and seized his property.
- Defense of Character: Concludes with an impassioned plea to Emperor Charles V to ignore the “venomous tongues” of his rivals and recognize his loyalty and services.
“Cartas de la conquista de México” is a collection of five extensive letters written by Hernán Cortés to Emperor Charles V between 1519 and 1526. These letters serve as both military dispatches and political justifications, chronicling the fall of the Aztec Empire and the expansion of Spanish control in Central America.
Historical and Political Narrative
The book follows a chronological trajectory of the conquest:
- Initial Defiance and Legitimacy: Cortés begins by justifying his decision to bypass the authority of Diego Velázquez, the Governor of Cuba, by founding the “Rica Villa de la Vera Cruz”. He portrays his actions as being in the direct service of the Crown rather than personal profit.
- The Fall of Tenochtitlan: The central narrative (Second and Third Letters) focuses on the march to the Aztec capital, the initial peaceful entry, the imprisonment of Montezuma, the subsequent Spanish defeat during the “Noche Triste,” and the eventual 75-day siege and destruction of the city.
- Expansion and Conflict: The later letters detail expeditions to the Pacific coast (“South Sea”) and a grueling overland trek to Honduras (Las Hibueras) to punish a rebellious captain, Cristóbal de Olid.
Thematic Analysis
Several recurring themes define the text:
- Justification of Violence: Cortés frequently presents preemptive strikes (such as the massacre at Cholula) and the enslavement of rebellious groups (like the Tepeaca) as necessary for the safety of Spanish forces and the “pacification” of the land.
- Religious Mission: A major theme is the conversion of “barbarous” people. Cortés details the removal of indigenous idols, the prohibition of human sacrifice, and his requests for religious orders (rather than high church hierarchy) to ensure genuine evangelization.
- Awe and Observation: The text contains detailed ethnographic and geographic observations. Cortés expresses profound admiration for the architecture, complex social organization, and massive markets of Tenochtitlan, comparing it favorably to major Spanish cities like Seville and Córdoba.
- Self-Promotion and Rivalry: Much of the writing is dedicated to defending Cortés’s character against “venomous tongues” and rivals like Pánfilo de Narváez and Diego Velázquez. He repeatedly emphasizes his personal financial sacrifices and absolute loyalty to the Emperor.
Core Objective
Ultimately, the book is a strategic communication tool intended to secure Cortés’s position as the legitimate governor of “New Spain”. He frames the conquest not just as a military feat, but as a massive expansion of the Emperor’s “imperial and real corona,” promising that these new lands will provide more wealth than all other discovered territories combined.