Genocide Project

Contemporaries viewed the First Crusade as a deeply spiritual undertaking, often characterizing it as a unique fusion of armed pilgrimage, monastic-like devotion, and a literal imitation of Christ.Key contemporary perspectives on the crusade’s relationship to pilgrimage and spiritual life include:

• Crusading as Armed Pilgrimage: The First Crusade was fundamentally conceived as a form of Jerusalem pilgrimage. Participants were frequently called peregrini (pilgrims), and they fulfilled traditional pilgrim customs such as visiting the Holy Sepulchre, bathing in the Jordan, and carrying palm branches. It was a revolutionary “penitential pilgrimage-in-arms” where devotional violence was seen as spiritually meritorious.
• The “Military Monastery” Model: Some contemporaries perceived the crusade as a “military monastery on the move”. Chroniclers often ascribed quasi-monastic qualities to crusaders, describing them as living in thrift, chastity, and severe need, behaving “not as knights but as monks”. Leaders like Godfrey of Bouillon were specifically singled out as models who shone “with the light of monks”.
• Literal Imitation of Christ (Imitatio Christi): Taking the cross was viewed as a literal fulfillment of the Gospel precept to “deny himself and take up his cross and follow me”. By adopting the sign of the cross, abandoning their homes (voluntary exile), and embracing poverty, crusaders were seen as walking in Christ’s footsteps.
• Apostolic Life (Vita Apostolica): The crusade was sometimes viewed through the lens of the “apostolic life” of the primitive Church. Observers noted the “unanimity” of the crusade army, describing them as being of “one heart and mind” (uno corde et animo), and holding their possessions in common, much like the first Christian community in Jerusalem.
• Martyrdom as the Ultimate Imitation: Death on the crusade was understood as a form of martyrdom. Crusaders were believed to be sacrificing themselves for their brothers just as Christ had sacrificed himself for mankind, with those who died in battle being promised a “martyr’s crown”. Awareness of these parallels was heightened at Jerusalem, where the city fell to the crusaders on a Friday, the same day Christ was put on the cross.
• Monastic Response and Transitus: The spiritual allure was so great that many monks and hermits abandoned their houses to join the expedition, despite strict papal prohibitions. For these individuals, the crusade was viewed as a kind of transitus—a passage from one form of religious life to another they perceived as a “better” way to follow Christ.

The concepts of Imitatio Christi and Vita Apostolica were fundamental to the spiritual framework of the First Crusade, essentially transforming a military expedition into a quasi-monastic devotional undertaking.

Role of Imitatio Christi (Imitation of Christ)

This concept provided the primary theological justification and spiritual allure for the First Crusade.

• Taking the Cross: The act of “taking the cross” (attaching a cloth cross to one’s clothing) was viewed as a literal, physical fulfillment of Christ’s command to “take up his cross and follow me”. This revolutionary ritual introduced a concept previously reserved for the monastic life into the secular world.
• The “Way of Christ” (Via Christi): The crusade was popularly known as the via Christi or via Domini. Unlike the abstract spiritual “way” of the cloistered monk, the crusader’s imitatio was literal; as armed pilgrims, they were “walking in Christ’s footsteps” through the actual lands of the Gospel.
• Voluntary Poverty and Exile: Crusaders were seen as imitating Christ by abandoning their homes (voluntary exile) and renouncing their material possessions (voluntary poverty) for his sake.
• Martyrdom: The ultimate form of imitatio was sacrificing one’s life in battle for fellow Christians, just as Christ had sacrificed himself for mankind. Those who died on crusade were promised a “martyr’s crown”.

Role of Vita Apostolica (Apostolic Life)

While secondary to Imitatio Christi, the ideals of the “apostolic life” of the primitive Church were used by contemporaries to describe and frame the crusaders’ community.

• Unanimity and Unity: Observers frequently noted the “unanimity” (unanimitas) of the crusade army, describing them as being of “one heart and mind” (uno corde et animo). This specific language was drawn directly from the description of the first Christian community in Jerusalem in the Acts of the Apostles.
• Common Possession: Chroniclers like Baldric of Bourgueil noted that, much like the primitive Church, “nearly all things were held in common” among the crusaders, who behaved with a sense of “brotherhood” (fraternitas) that transcended social ranks.
• Active Apostolic Mission: The crusade was sometimes presented as an “active” apostolic mission of “poverty and preaching”. Some observers even likened certain groups of crusaders to “evangelists and disciples of the Gospel” who relied on others for food and clothing according to Christ’s instructions to his disciples.
• Apostolic Timing: The fall of Jerusalem was noted by contemporaries to have occurred on the feast day of the divisio apostolorum (the dispersal of the apostles), leading some to characterize the crusaders as the “sons of the apostles” who liberated the land for their “fathers”.

Contemporaries viewed the First Crusade not as a standard military campaign, but as a revolutionary fusion of armed pilgrimage and monastic-like devotional life. This undertaking was deeply rooted in the broader 12th-century reformation of religious life, where the line between secular and monastic spirituality became increasingly blurred.

A Revolutionary “Armed Pilgrimage”

• Fusion of Traditions: The crusade was fundamentally conceived as a form of Jerusalem pilgrimage (sancta peregrinatio), but it was revolutionary because it required participants to use arms as part of their devotional exercise.
• Terminology: Participants were almost universally described as peregrini (pilgrims) rather than just soldiers.
• Pilgrim Customs: Once in the Holy Land, crusaders fulfilled traditional pilgrim rituals, such as bathing in the River Jordan, gathering palm branches, and worshipping at the Holy Sepulchre.

The “Military Monastery on the Move”

• Monastic Comparisons: Some contemporaries described the crusading army as a “military monastery on the move”. Chroniclers noted that crusaders lived in severe need, behaveing “not as knights but as monks”.
• Exemplary Leaders: Leaders like Godfrey of Bouillon were singled out as models who “shone with the light of monks” because of their humility and extraordinary chastity.
• The Transitus: The spiritual appeal was so strong that many monks and hermits abandoned their houses to join the expedition, viewing it as a transitus—a passage to a more perfect or literal way of following Christ, despite strict papal prohibitions against them leaving their cloisters.

Literal Imitation of Christ (Imitatio Christi)

• The “Way of Christ”: The crusade was popularly known as the via Christi or via Domini. Unlike the monk’s abstract spiritual “way,” the crusader’s imitation was literal; they were physically walking in Christ’s footsteps through the actual lands of the Gospel.
• Taking the Cross: The ritual of attaching a cloth cross to one’s clothing was viewed as a literal fulfillment of Christ’s command to “take up his cross and follow me”. This introduced a concept previously reserved for the monastic life into the secular world.
• Voluntary Exile and Poverty: Crusaders were seen as imitating Christ by renouncing their material possessions and embracing the hardship of self-imposed exile for his sake.
• Martyrdom: Dying on crusade was understood as the ultimate form of imitatio, where the crusader sacrificed their life for their “brothers” just as Christ had sacrificed his for mankind.

Apostolic Life (Vita Apostolica)

• Unity and Unanimity: The crusading community was often framed through the values of the primitive Church. Observers frequently noted the “unanimity” of the army, describing them as being of “one heart and mind” (uno corde et animo), directly echoing descriptions of the first Christian community in Jerusalem in the Acts of the Apostles.
• Common Possession: Chroniclers noted that “nearly all things were held in common” among the crusaders, and that they shared a sense of “brotherhood” that transcended social ranks.
• Apostolic Timing: The fall of Jerusalem on a Friday—the day of the divisio apostolorum (the dispersal of the apostles)—led some to characterize the crusaders as the “sons of the apostles” who liberated the land for their “fathers”.

The following summary covers the chapters of “Crusading Spirituality in the Holy Land and Iberia, c.1095–c.1187” by William J. Purkis:

• Chapter 1: The Monastic Response to the First Crusade
  • Examines why many monks and hermits abandoned their cloisters to join the First Crusade despite strict papal prohibitions.
  • Argues that crusading was presented as a strikingly innovative act of imitatio Christi (imitation of Christ), which held deep allure for those already committed to monastic reform.
  • Introduces the concept of transitus—the movement from one religious path to another perceived as “better”—to explain this monastic exodus.
• Chapter 2: The Foundations of Crusading Spirituality, 1095–c.1110
  • Analyzes how ideas of imitatio Christi were manifested through “taking the cross,” voluntary poverty, exile, and martyrdom.
  • Discusses the role of vita apostolica (apostolic life), noting that chroniclers often framed the crusading community through the values of the primitive Church, such as “unanimity” and holding possessions in common.
  • Explores the phenomenon of “crusade stigmata”—miraculous crosses appearing on participants’ bodies—as evidence of Christo-mimetic piety.
• Chapter 3: Pilgrimage, Mimesis and the Holy Land, 1099–c.1149
  • Explores how the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the ongoing threat to the holy places influenced crusade and pilgrimage piety.
  • Argues that crusading and Jerusalem pilgrimage became inextricably linked during this period, with both focusing on “walking in Christ’s footsteps”.
  • Highlights the “rebuilding of Zion”—the Frankish restoration of shrines—as a visual expression of devotion to Christ’s humanity.
• Chapter 4: The Cistercian Influence on Crusading Spirituality, c.1128–1187
  • Identifies a radical shift in crusading theology led by Pope Eugenius III and Bernard of Clairvaux, who attempted to distance crusading from imitatio Christi.
  • Explains that Bernard viewed crusading as too elementary for “true” imitation, which he believed was reserved for monks and the Order of the Temple.
  • Notes the replacement of Christo-mimetic language in papal appeals with the strenuitas patrum (deeds of the fathers) to inspire recruitment.
• Chapter 5: The Introduction of Crusading to Iberia, 1096–c.1134
  • Details the initial difficulties the papacy faced in redirecting the crusading piety of Spanish arms-bearers from the East to their native soil.
  • Argues that the effective propagation of crusading in Iberia relied on the idea of the iter per Hispaniam—opening an alternative route to the Holy Sepulchre through North Africa.
  • Examines military confraternities like Belchite that offered spiritual rewards equivalent to those of Jerusalem crusaders.
• Chapter 6: The Development of Crusading Spirituality in Iberia, c.1130–c.1150
  • Discusses efforts at Santiago de Compostela to portray St. James as a patron of warfare against Islam and to create a “foundation legend” for Iberian crusading.
  • Analyzes the Historia Turpini, which presented Charlemagne as an exemplary proto-crusader to provide a historical framework for peninsular holy war.
  • Concludes that by the mid-1140s, Iberian crusading began moving away from its Jerusalem-centric roots to reflect more local concerns.

In “Crusading Spirituality in the Holy Land and Iberia, c.1095–c.1187,” William J. Purkis analyzes how the ideals of the imitation of Christ (imitatio Christi) and the apostolic life (vita apostolica) shaped early crusading ideology. He argues that contemporaries viewed crusading as a revolutionary form of armed pilgrimage and a quasi-monastic devotional activity.

The Foundations of Crusading Spirituality (c. 1095–1110)

The First Crusade was fundamentally linked to monastic reform movements of the late 11th century.

• Imitatio Christi: Taking the cross was viewed as a literal fulfillment of Christ’s command to “take up his cross and follow me”. By embracing voluntary poverty and exile, crusaders were seen as walking physically in Christ’s footsteps.
• Vita Apostolica: Chroniclers often described the crusading army as a community of “one heart and mind” (uno corde et animo), directly mirroring descriptions of the primitive Church in Jerusalem.
• Monastic Response: The spiritual allure was so great that many monks abandoned their cloisters to join the expedition, viewing it as a transitus—a passage to a more perfect way of following Christ.

The Cistercian Shift and the Second Crusade (c. 1128–1187)

Purkis identifies a significant shift in crusading theology during the mid-12th century, led by Bernard of Clairvaux and Pope Eugenius III.

• Theology of the Cross: Bernard attempted to redefine the crusade badge as a signum vitae (sign of life) representing God’s mercy and the crusade indulgence, rather than a symbol of personal imitatio Christi.
• Separation of Identities: Bernard believed “true” imitation was reserved for monks and the Order of the Temple. He viewed crusading as too elementary for such spiritual heights, leading him to replace Christo-mimetic language in papal appeals with the strenuitas patrum (deeds of the fathers).

Development in the Iberian Peninsula (1096–c. 1150)

Crusading in Iberia adapted and evolved through distinct stages to fit local needs.

• Policy of Containment (1095–c.1120): Popes initially discouraged Iberian knights from traveling to the East, offering vow commutation for fighting local “Moabites”.
• The Iter per Hispaniam (c. 1120–1130): To make local warfare more attractive, strategists promoted the idea of opening an alternative route to the Holy Sepulchre through North Africa.
• Localization (c. 1130–1150): Propagandists at Santiago de Compostela began forging a militaristic identity for St. James, presenting him as a patron of holy war. The Historia Turpini created a “foundation legend” using Charlemagne as a proto-crusader to validate peninsular conflict independently of the Jerusalem tradition.

Conclusion

Purkis concludes that while the official theology of crusading became “less monastic” over time as military orders channeled those impulses, the core identity of the crusader as a pilgrim and imitator of Christ remained deeply rooted in the popular imagination and narrative traditions.